Key gender issues in the military education in Nigeria and a call for gender-sensitive security sector reforms
Keywords:
Adult EducationContinuing Professional EducationGenderMilitary-EducationGender-Sensitive Security Reforms
Abstract
This paper is based on a study that investigated key gender issues that impact access to and participation of female naval personnel in the continuing professional education (CPE) of the Nigerian Navy. It also draws on a published report on sex-role socialisation of female personnel of the Nigerian Navy. The central argument of the paper is that women personnel are not adequately represented in all specialisations of the Nigerian navy. Consequently, they are not able to easily ascend to senior positions that could enhance their opportunities to participate in national decision-making processes on security and other matters of the state. The nature of continuing professional education in military education in Nigeria has a significant role to play in this. However, this has not been adequately explored in the literature on continuing adult education in Nigeria. To bridge this gap, the study explored the lived experiences of female personnel of the Nigerian Navy, concerning how and why they are (un)able to access and participate in the CPE of the military; the challenges that the experiences present; and the policies and institutional frameworks that guide and support the CPE of the Nigerian Navy. This was a qualitative e case study design and was framed within critical theory. In-depth interviews and document reviews were used to collect the data; Phenomenological content analysis was used as the method for data analysis. The findings of the study revealed that women personnel of the Nigerian Navy experience gender-based discriminations and participation in CPE. Besides, the study revealed that the Nigerian Navy did not have any CPE policy nor internal gender policies. Furthermore, the institutional frameworks that guide and support the CPE of the Nigerian Navy were not gender-sensitive. The paper concludes that there are gender issues in the Nigerian Navy that impact female personnel’s participation in CPE and that these issues call for gender-sensitive reforms in the navy.References
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Lekoko, R. N., and Maruatona, T. L. (2006). Opportunities and challenges of widening access to education: adult education in Botswana. In A. Oduaran and H. S. Bhola (eds.), Widening Access to education as social justice (p. 305-328). The Netherlands: Springer.
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Mejiuni, O. (2010). Abuse of women in the workplace. Unpublished symposium paper on Abuse of Women: A global health problem. Ile-Ife: Annual General Meeting of Medical Women’s Association of Nigeria. 25th August 2010.
Mejiuni, O. (2013). Research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in Nigeria. African Journal of Teacher Education, 3(2), pp. 1-21.
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Niemanis, A. (2005). Gender mainstreaming in practice: A Handbook. Bratislava, Slovak: UNDP. Retrieved May 8, 2014, from http://www.undp.org/europeandcis.
Oduaran, A. (2006). Conceptualising the widening of access to education as social justice. In Oduaran, A. and Bhola, H. S. (Eds.), Widening Access to education as social justice (p. 69-82). The Netherlands: Springer.
Onodugo, I. Amujiri, B. and Nwuba, B. (2015). Security challenges and survival of democracy in Nigeria. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences. 4(10), pp.27-34.
Onuoha, F.C., Nwangwu, C. & Ugwueze, M.I. Counterinsurgency operations of the Nigerian military and Boko Haram insurgency: expounding the viscid manacle. Secur J (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-020-00234-6.
Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (2011). Mending inequalities: men and
gender equality in the OSCE region. Vienna: Ueberreuter Print.
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Persson, A. and Sundevall, F. (2019). Conscripting women: gender, soldiering, and military service in Sweden 1965-2018. Women’s History Review, 28(7), 1039-1056. doi:10.1080/09612025.2019.1596542.
Policy and Legal Advocacy Centre (2012). The Nigerian Defence Academy Act.
Pinch, F. C. (2004). Diversity: conditions for the adaptive, inclusive military. In F. C. Pinch, A. T. MacIntyre, P, Browne and A. C. Okros. Challenge and Change in Military: Gender and Diversity Issues (pp. 171-191). Kingston, Ontario: Canadian Defence Academy Press.
Pinch, F. C., MacIntyre, A. T., Browne, P. and Okros, A. C. (Eds.) (2004). Challenge and change in the military: Gender and diversity issues. Kingston, Ontario, Canada: Canadian Defence Academy Press.
Rush, F. (Ed.) (2004). The Cambridge companion to critical theory. Cambridge: Cambridge
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Welton, M. (1991). Shaking the foundations: The critical turn in adult education theory. The
Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education. 5(Special Issue), 21-42. Retrieved December 1, 2014, from http://www.journals.msvu.ca/index.php/cjsae/.../2020.
Akpomuje, P. (2017). Gender-role socialization and academic performance of female naval personnel during continuing professional education: implications for security challenges in Nigeria. Journal of Military Learning. 1(2), pp.21-30.
Anderson, C. L. (2005). Military education. In L. M. English (Ed.), International encyclopaedia of adult education (pp. 404-406). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Angelevski, S. and Smileski, R. (2013). Reforms in military education – gender issues in the Republic of Macedonia. General Staff of Slovenian Armed Forces. Retrieved from http://eprints.ugd.edu.mk/12695/1/Trud%202%20-%20Slavko%20Angelevski.pdf.
Avoseh, M. B. (2006). The United States’ “No Child Left Behind Act” and its implication for widening access to education. In Oduaran, A. and Bhola, H. S. (Eds.), Widening Access to education as social justice (p. 380-393). The Netherlands: Springer.
Barnes, K. (2009, August). Building an inclusive security sector. IFP Gender Cluster and
International Alert. Retrieved August 3, 2014, from http://www.initiativeforpeacebuilding.eu.
Bhola, H. S. (2006). Access to education: a global perspective. In Oduaran, A. and Bhola, H. S. (Eds.), Widening Access to education as social justice (p. 44-68). The Netherlands: Springer.
Boldry, J., Wood, W., and Kashy, D. (2001). Gender stereotypes and the evaluation of men
and women in military training. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 689-705.
British Council Nigeria (2012). Gender in Nigeria Report. Issues Policies Action, 2nd Edition. Available at www.britishcouncil.org.ng.
Brookfield, S. (2001). Repositioning ideology critique in a critical theory of adult learning.
Adult Education Quarterly. 52(1), 7-22.
Brookfield, S. (2004). The power of critical theory: Liberating adult learning and teaching.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Brookfield, S. and Holst, J. (2014) A critical theory perspective on program development. In V. C. Wang and V. C. Bryan (Eds). Andragogical and pedagogical methods for curriculum and program development (pp. 1-19). Harrisburg, P.A: IGI.
Davis, K. D., and McKee, B. (2004). Women in the military: Facing the warrior framework. In F. C. Pinch, A. T. MacIntyre, P. Browne, and A. C. Okros (Eds.), Challenge and change in the military: Gender and diversity issues (pp. 52-75). Kingston, Ontario, Canada: Canadian Defence Academy Press.
Dayil, P. B. and CLEEN Foundation (2011). Nigeria. In G. Miranda, and K. Valasek (Eds.),
The security sector and gender in West Africa: A survey of police, defence, justice and penal services in ECOWAS states (pp. 185-202). Retrieved March 12, 2014, from
http://www.dcaf.ch/Publications/The-Security-Sector-and Gender-in-West-Africa-A-survey-of-police-defence-justice-and penal-services-in-ECOWAS-states.
Fapohunda, T. (2017). Diversity and gender parity in Nigeria: a situation analysis. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 5(3), 254-260.
Fasting, K. and Sand, T. S. (2010). Gender and military issues – a categorised research bibliography. Oslo: Norwegian Defence University College.
Finger, M. (2005). Critical theory. In L.M. English (Ed.), International encyclopaedia of adult
education (pp. 165-168). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Guzura, T. (2017). An overview of issues and concepts in gender mainstreaming. Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences, 8(1), 1-21.
Gya, G. (2007). The Importance of Gender in ESDP. European Security Review, Number 34,
(July 2007), pp. 1-8.
Healy, M. (2005). Phenomenology. In L.M. English (Ed.), International encyclopaedia of
adult education (pp. 471-474). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hendricks, C. and Hutton, L (2008). Defence Reform and Gender. In M. Bastick and K. Valasek (Eds.), Gender and Security Sector Reform Toolkit. Geneva: DCAF, OSCE/ODIHR, UN-INSTRAW, 2008.
Human Rights Watch (2016). Nigeria: Officials abusing displaced women and girls displaced by Boko Haram and victims twice over.
Idris, M. I. (2019). Professional military education for the modern officer: the Nigerian experience. In D. Jalili, and H. Annen (Eds.), Professional military education: a cross-cultural survey. (pp.35-42).
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, (2000). Democracy in Nigeria: Continuing dialogues for nation-building. Stockholm: International - Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International-IDEA).
Jalili, D and Annen, H. (Eds.) (2019). Professional military education: a cross-cultural survey. Studies in Military Psychology and Pedagogy. Switzerland: Peter Lang. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3726/b15676.
Lekoko, R. N., and Maruatona, T. L. (2006). Opportunities and challenges of widening access to education: adult education in Botswana. In A. Oduaran and H. S. Bhola (eds.), Widening Access to education as social justice (p. 305-328). The Netherlands: Springer.
Mama, A. and Okazawa-Rey, M. (2012). Militarism, conflict and women’s activism in the global era: challenges and prospects for women in three West African contexts. Feminist Review 101. Pp. 97-123.
Mejiuni, O. and Bateye, B. O. (2016) Religion, education and the wellbeing of citizens of Nigeria. In H. Tiliouine and R. Estes (eds). The State of Social Progress of Islamic Societies. International Handbook of Quality-of-Life. Springer, Cham.
Mejiuni, O. (2012). Women and Power: Education, Religion and Identity. Ibadan: University
Press PLC.
Mejiuni, O. (2010). Abuse of women in the workplace. Unpublished symposium paper on Abuse of Women: A global health problem. Ile-Ife: Annual General Meeting of Medical Women’s Association of Nigeria. 25th August 2010.
Mejiuni, O. (2013). Research as informal and mutual learning: reflections on two feminist studies in Nigeria. African Journal of Teacher Education, 3(2), pp. 1-21.
Merriam, S. B. and Caffarella, R. S (1999). Learning in adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella R.S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Muoghalu, C. O. and Eboiyehi, F. A. (2018). Assessing Obafemi Awolowo University gender equity policy: Nigeria’s under-representation of women persists. Issues in Educational Research, 28(4), 990-1008. http://www.iier.org.au/iier28/muoghalu.pdf
Ndujihe, C, (2013, April 5). Timeline of Boko Haram clashes with the state. Vanguard. Retrieved from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/04/timeline-of-boko-haram-clashes-with-the-state.
Niemanis, A. (2005). Gender mainstreaming in practice: A Handbook. Bratislava, Slovak: UNDP. Retrieved May 8, 2014, from http://www.undp.org/europeandcis.
Oduaran, A. (2006). Conceptualising the widening of access to education as social justice. In Oduaran, A. and Bhola, H. S. (Eds.), Widening Access to education as social justice (p. 69-82). The Netherlands: Springer.
Onodugo, I. Amujiri, B. and Nwuba, B. (2015). Security challenges and survival of democracy in Nigeria. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences. 4(10), pp.27-34.
Onuoha, F.C., Nwangwu, C. & Ugwueze, M.I. Counterinsurgency operations of the Nigerian military and Boko Haram insurgency: expounding the viscid manacle. Secur J (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-020-00234-6.
Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (2011). Mending inequalities: men and
gender equality in the OSCE region. Vienna: Ueberreuter Print.
Oropo, K. T. (2015, December 13). Chronology of Boko Haram attacks. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://guardian.ng/news/chronology-of-boko-haram-attacks.
Persson, A. and Sundevall, F. (2019). Conscripting women: gender, soldiering, and military service in Sweden 1965-2018. Women’s History Review, 28(7), 1039-1056. doi:10.1080/09612025.2019.1596542.
Policy and Legal Advocacy Centre (2012). The Nigerian Defence Academy Act.
Pinch, F. C. (2004). Diversity: conditions for the adaptive, inclusive military. In F. C. Pinch, A. T. MacIntyre, P, Browne and A. C. Okros. Challenge and Change in Military: Gender and Diversity Issues (pp. 171-191). Kingston, Ontario: Canadian Defence Academy Press.
Pinch, F. C., MacIntyre, A. T., Browne, P. and Okros, A. C. (Eds.) (2004). Challenge and change in the military: Gender and diversity issues. Kingston, Ontario, Canada: Canadian Defence Academy Press.
Rush, F. (Ed.) (2004). The Cambridge companion to critical theory. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Retrieved August 6, 2014, from http://www.cambridge.org
Timeline of Boko Haram Insurgency. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved December 14, 2019, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/timeline¬_of_Boko_Haram_Insurgency.
Trobaugh, E. M. (2018). Women, regardless: understanding gender bias in U.S. military integration. Joint Force Quarterly, 88, 46-53.
Welton, M. (1991). Shaking the foundations: The critical turn in adult education theory. The
Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education. 5(Special Issue), 21-42. Retrieved December 1, 2014, from http://www.journals.msvu.ca/index.php/cjsae/.../2020.
Published
2020-08-26
Section
Articles